LiFA - RESOURCES & PUBLICATIONS

Lithium for America (LiFA) produces independent, volunteer‑driven research focused on the extraction, processing, and techno‑economics of critical minerals.

Our articles, technical explainers, and compiled resources are developed in collaboration with academics, universities, and research laboratories to bring clarity to the complex scientific and engineering challenges shaping the U.S. critical minerals sector.

Techno-Economic Analysis of Nickel Sulfate Production from Polymetallic Nodules Collected in the Clarion-Clipperton-Zone

Abstract :The rapid expansion of global battery demand, driven by the development of the electric vehicles (EVs) industry and the parallel growth of stationary energy storage systems (ESS) has intensified focus on so-called "battery materials". Lithium, nickel, cobalt, and manganese have emerged as strategically essential materials, as they constitute the core constituents of most commercial and next-generation cathode chemistries employed in lithium-ion battery manufacturing (Koech et al. 2024).

As of 2025, global production of nickel, cobalt, manganese, and copper continued to rely predominantly on established terrestrial mining operations, drawing from a wide variety of geological environments. The growing strategic importance of these materials has therefore renewed interest in mineral exploration and in the evaluation of unconventional resource types, including seafloor polymetallic nodules deposits. The nodule fields of the Clarion-Clipperton Zone have been assessed to contain resources of 274 million tons of nickel, 44 million tons of cobalt, 6 billion tons of manganese and 226 million tons of copper (Hein et al. 2020).

Thanks to extensive industrial and academic seafloor exploration work conducted in the area (Hein et al. 2020; Bau et al. 2014; Von Stackelberg. 1997), the CCZ area is the best-known abyssal seafloor worldwide and polymetallic nodules are a well understood resource (Wegorzewski et al. 2014; Herrouin et al. 1991 ). One commercial polymetallic nodule collecting project is being developed in the area and expected to start operations in 2027 (AMC Consultants Pty Ltd. 2025) and will serve as the reference case study for this paper.

Entire article available on OnePetro : https://onepetro.org/OTCONF/proceedingsabstract/26OTC/26OTC/D021S021R005/798310

Project Economics of Lithium Extraction from Southern California Geothermal Brines: A Techno-Economic Review

Abstract: The Salton Sea region of Southern California hosts significant lithium resources contained within geothermal brines, positioning it as a potentially important US Lithium producing Hub. Several brine-mining projects using Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE) technologies are currently under development and a public-private initiative “the Lithium Valley” has been launched to support the operations. Yet these projects face technical, operational, and technological uncertainties inherent to both challenging geothermal brines and DLE-based processing and scalability challenges. This paper provides a techno-economic review of lithium-extraction projects under development from geothermal brines in the area, with the aim of assessing their competitiveness within the global lithium market. To do so, we compile and analyze a database of publicly available Definitive Feasibility Studies (DFS), Pre-Feasibility Studies (PFS), and Preliminary Economic Assessments (PEA). Given that all identified projects rely on DLE technologies, we benchmark their reported project economics against those of operating lithium carbonate production activities from conventional brine resources in the South America’s Lithium Triangle. Our analysis finds that Southern California geothermal-brine lithium projects exhibit cost structures broadly competitive with leading South American brine operations. Moreover, the expected scalability of DLE technologies is projected to further improve cost performance as the industry matures.

Full article available on OnePetro : https://www.researchgate.net/publication/410108993_Project_Economics_of_Lithium_Extraction_from_Southern_California_Geothermal_Brines_A_Techno-Economic_Review

Ion-Exchange Sorbents for Geothermal Brine Lithium Recovery: An Integrated Assessment of Efficiency and Challenges

Growing demand for lithium products has led to a search for new and alternative lithium resources to meet projected demand consumption. Depending on the geological setting, geothermal brine can represent an attractive lithium source due to their potential high lithium concentration (up to 200ppm) as the development of unconventional Direct Lithium Extraction technologies unlock access to untapped resources. Among emerging Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE) routes, ionexchange sorbent-based have gained prominence for their operational compatibility with geothermal conditions. This paper provides an integrated assessment of the efficiency and challenges associated with ion-exchange sorbent based DLE technologies for geothermal brine lithium recovery. This study focuses on the two-operating ion-exchange sorbent deployed in geothermal lithium extraction operations, hydrogen titanate oxide and hydrogen manganese oxide materials, and assembles a global dataset documenting geothermal lithium production operations across California, the Upper Rhine Valley, the United Kingdom, and Australia. We investigate sorbent–brine interaction mechanisms, lithium uptake in the presence of competing cations, and the sensitivity of sorbent performance to key thermodynamic and geochemical parameters characteristic of geothermal brines, including total dissolved solids, temperature, pH, redox conditions, pressure, and organic constituents’ concentration. In addition, we assess sorbent regeneration behavior, degradation pathways, and the influence of brine composition on long-term cyclic stability and overall process performance. Our findings clarify the potential of ion-exchange-based DLE as a viable pathway for lithium production from geothermal brine

Article available on OnePetro : https://www.researchgate.net/publication/410109227_Ion-Exchange_Sorbents_for_Geothermal_Brine_L